Still trapped in media comparison? A systematic review of comparative research on immersive virtual reality in education

Immersive virtual reality (IVR) has garnered increasing attention in educational research,leading to a growing body of empirical studies. A recurring critique within the fieldconcerns the continued reliance on media comparison studies, which are consideredtheoretically limited and confounded. However, systematic evidence supporting orchallenging this assumption is still lacking. This systematic review aims to map thetypes of comparative research designs used in educational IVR studies, examinewhether key IVR-specific constructs such as presence and cybersickness are assessed,and analyze how these patterns have evolved between 2016 and 2024 in leadingeducational technology journals. Across 20 journals, 130 studies met the inclusioncriteria. Contrary to prevailing assumptions, media comparison studies were commonbut not dominant. They were increasingly complemented by value-added designs,learner-treatment-interaction studies, and mixed approaches. However, the analysisalso reveals a critical shortfall: essential IVR-specific constructs are frequentlyneglected: only 39% of the studies assessed presence, and just 10% measuredcybersickness. By systematically characterizing comparative designs and the treatmentof core IVR constructs, the review provides a nuanced picture of currentmethodological practices and identifies concrete directions for improving theory-driven and empirically rigorous IVR research.